The Evangelical Church and its national role in Egypt
July 26, 2024
The Evangelical Church and its national role in Egypt
Contents
Dr.. Q. Tharwat Wahib Wahba
Evangelical Theological College in Cairo
The Egyptian Evangelical Church arose as a natural result of the Evangelical Reformation movement that emerged in Europe in the sixteenth century. Some missionaries belonging to Western evangelical entities, such as the Lutherans, who came to Egypt in the seventeenth century, entered Egypt, but they did not last long.[1]The Moravians also came from Central Europe and worked in Egypt for a year1752 until 1782, and their service included medical work and spiritual service.[2]Then came after them the Evangelicals, represented by their body, the “Missionary Church Body.”CMS, and they established their service in 1825, and they worked to develop the Egyptian Coptic Church and opened a number of schools and hospitals, and they continued to serve as a first stage until 1863.[3]The previously mentioned missionary bodies did not seek to establish new churches, but rather sought to attempt to reform the Egyptian Church, which had reached a state that needed renaissance in areas such as education, care, training of clergy, resistance to ignorance and superstition, dissemination of the Holy Bible, and development of preaching, singing, and service in the field of education. Christianity for children and youth and the development of theological education.[4]
The ecclesiastical and spiritual situation in Egypt remained stagnant except for a little while until a year1854 when American missionaries affiliated with a Presbyterian church in America, who had begun their service in Syria and Lebanon since 1818, arrived.[5]These missionaries came with their heart to provide the necessary spiritual assistance to the people of Egypt. After a few years of their service, they identified the real needs of the Egyptian people and found them represented in the areas of education and health, in addition to spiritual needs. Accordingly, the American mission focused its efforts on establishing schools for boys and girls and establishing hospitals. On the spiritual side, the American mission established the Egyptian Evangelical Church with its educational, theological, and social institutions. The Egyptians quickly absorbed the new vision and Egyptian leaders emerged who took the lead to transform the church into a national church working to serve and advance Egyptian society. Then came missionary bodies from other evangelical denominations, and new churches emerged belonging to various theological trends, such as the Apostolic churches, Pentecostalism, the Renaissance of Holiness, Welcoming Brotherhood and Brotherhood, and Baptists, in addition to the Episcopal Church, and other churches that contributed to making a real impact on Egyptian society in many fields.[6]
After this historical introduction, this study reviews three of the most important areas in which the Egyptian evangelical churches, with their various sects, contributed in order to serve society and uphold the values of the Kingdom of God.
First: the spiritual influence
Egyptian evangelical churches stirred the stagnant spiritual environment in Egypt since the mid-nineteenth century. As previously mentioned, the spiritual state of the Egyptian Church was facing great challenges, as witnessed by Coptic historians themselves.[7]The entry of the evangelical churches with their reformed theological ideas and practices had the greatest role in changing the spiritual image in Egypt. The spiritual influence of the evangelical churches was represented in: –
1- The spread of the Bible
Until the nineteenth century, Egyptian Christians relied on the presence of the Bible within the Church in the Coptic language, and Arabic translations were rare in Egyptian hands. However, with the entry of evangelical work into Egypt, churches and evangelical organizations sought to provide the Holy Bible in Arabic to all Egyptians.
The Van Dyck/Smith translation has played a prominent role that has continued for a year1865 until today in formulating the Egyptian Christian mentality in terms of written expressions. Although this translation was not accepted at first and even resisted, today the Egyptian churches only accept the Van Dyke/Smith translation of the Bible and consider all other translations to be unrecognized.[8]
The Egyptian Bible House played a prominent role in the spread of the Bible by establishing libraries throughout the Egyptian country and through the presence of an active network of distributors, until the Bible House’s distribution of various biblical publications exceeded millions of copies during the last twenty years. The spread of modern means of communication, such as satellite channels, the Internet, and mobile phones, played a major role in spreading the word of God in modern and contemporary ways that made the Bible within the reach of every hand and within every home. Today in Egypt, we find Christian youth, led by Coptic Orthodox youth, carrying holy books to their churches and study groups, reading, memorizing, and competing in their knowledge of the Holy Bible. Evangelical churches and their institutions have played an important role in spreading the Holy Bible to all sects of the Egyptian people, something that contributes to reshaping the spiritual map of Egypt.[9]
2- Preaching and singing
Egyptian churches knew little of preaching during the Dark Ages of church history. Preaching was limited to some church leaders on public occasions, and was not present in the liturgy of worship within churches. But evangelical churches practiced preaching within churches on a regular basis and trained their leaders to do this in a professional manner, which encouraged other churches to practice preaching and it became part of church practices. Preaching changed from being a narration of some stories and sermons in a classical language, sometimes incomprehensible, to biblical preaching. Interpretive explains the Bible and connects biblical concepts to contemporary reality. Evangelical preaching has become the most widespread model in Egypt and has prevailed over all churches of all denominations because of its spiritual and practical concepts as well.
As for chanting, it has developed tremendously over the years. In the era before the Evangelical Church entered Egypt, Egypt only knew ancient Coptic melodies that were memorized by heart and chanted even without understanding their meanings, sometimes. But with the introduction of evangelical churches, many hymns were translated from English, well composed, and sung with Western melodies. This was in the first stage of the introduction of chanting into Egypt. Then singing developed until it became one of the most important means that attracted many people to the church and even to Christianity. Many Egyptian evangelists have excelled in composing and composing hymns in a way that combines theological thought with melodies that suit different segments of the Egyptian people. There are hymns with fast Western melodies that attract a large segment of young people, and there are also hymns with oriental melodies that appeal to the general public. Old classical hymns also retained their place in some churches. These methods have penetrated the Coptic Church and even found a way into the public arena, as many Egyptians listen to Christian hymns on some public occasions, whether in various media outlets or in some open meetings. The Evangelical Church has played a major role in developing singing that carries within it the Christian message in a way that suits different ages and segments of society, which has created a real spiritual impact in Egypt.[10]
3- Theological education
Egyptian evangelical churches are keen to provide their leaders and people with a deep theological education. Less than ten years after the beginning of evangelical work in Egypt, a theological education class was established for the purpose of preparing pastors and leaders for the evangelical church. The matter has developed until the Egyptian Evangelical churches have more than ten colleges of theology, varying in scientific and academic level and diverse in their theological orientations. Theological colleges play a major role not only in preparing full-time pastors and ministers for service within various churches, but also in educating and preparing lay leaders for the church and society. Many colleges of theology open their doors to educate the people of the church in various theological fields. These colleges grant academic degrees and studies that help students become familiar with the theology and doctrine of their church and also provide them with modern and contemporary ministry tools. Non-evangelical churches were affected by this matter and established their own theological colleges that prepare ministers for service within these churches. This advanced theological education led to the presence of generations of researchers in various fields of theology, as well as the emergence of many books, references, and interpretations that enrich the Arab theological library, which helped in the emergence of Arab theological trends that are slowly making their way among the global theological trends.[11]
The spiritual influence of the Evangelical Church is not limited to the areas mentioned above, but there are other areas that are too limited to mention, such as the areas of evangelism, missionary work, care, Christian education, Christian counseling, and serving different generations of children, youth, youth, families, the elderly, and other groups. This is in addition to the areas of spiritual service among non-Christians and the encouraging results of this service, in addition to spiritual service among Arab communities in the diaspora and other countries. All of these areas show the increasing spiritual influence exerted by the Egyptian evangelical churches in their various sects, which imbues the country’s spiritual future with more hope and hope.
Second: Social influence
Since the beginning of their presence in Egypt, the Evangelical churches of all sects have been keen to engage in the social life of the country. Although there are some theological currents among some evangelical sects that call for the isolation of the church from the world and thus lack of community participation, these currents are no longer prevalent among evangelical churches today. Rather, the trend prevails that calls for the church to have a role in serving society and positively influencing members of society of all categories. The Church’s social influence on Egyptian society included several aspects, including, for example:
1- Education
Education is the largest area in which evangelical churches have participated in Egyptian society and in which they have achieved the greatest achievements, both historically and currently. Since the beginning of the evangelical work in Egypt, the missionaries, and after them the Egyptian church leaders, realized that the nation’s need in the period between the middle of the nineteenth century and a century was for education. The Evangelical Church provided a number of schools that provided a higher level of education than was provided by government educational institutions. The spread of schools affiliated with evangelical churches reached such an extent in the early twentieth century that the number of these schools exceeded the number of schools run by the government![12]
Evangelical churches have sought to link the presence of the church in a city or village to the presence of the school in most cases, and the presence of the hospital in some cases. Evangelical schools have played a prominent role in preparing generations of Egyptian learners and intellectuals in various fields. Evangelical schools have graduated ministers, doctors, teachers, engineers, leaders of thought, art and journalism. From evangelical schools emerged calls for political freedom, women’s liberation, minority rights, national nationalism, and other claims that contributed to developing the nation’s social performance.
Evangelical churches were also keen to contribute to the educational process in their affiliated schools, as the Bible was taught to all students from all religious backgrounds from the mid-nineteenth century until the year1946. All students were also required to attend daily worship periods in the worship hall attached to each school. These schools played a prominent role in spreading the spirit of tolerance among students of all religions, which created room for acceptance not only of evangelicals, but of all Christians. Because the people of the countries where evangelical schools are located recognized with gratitude the enlightening role that schools played in educating their children at the highest scientific and moral level, and even when Egypt faced some terrorist attacks and events between Muslims and Christians, no church or evangelical school was exposed to any harm because of the love of all sectors of society for the church. And its institutions and the role it played in educating generations.[13]
Today, despite the decrease in the number of schools affiliated with evangelical churches in number, the number of students in them is in the tens of thousands, and the quality of education and morals provided in these schools has made the demand for them beyond description, to the point that some schools apply to a few thousand students at the time they accommodate. The schools received several hundred new applicants, which reflects the extent of confidence that the various sects of society place in the education provided by the evangelical churches through their schools.
2- Medical service
For a long period of its modern history, Egypt has suffered from poor health services provided to citizens. The Evangelical churches realized this suffering and sought, with the financial or human resources they were able to obtain, to establish hospitals and clinics to serve the Egyptian people’s health needs. So, some evangelical churches such as the Presbyterian Church, the Episcopal Church and some other churches established a number of hospitals. These hospitals played a prominent role in providing distinguished medical service that ensured the standard levels and scientific standards for providing medical service, all accompanied by high-level biblical, Christian, humane moral performance. Egyptian evangelists have contributed to establishing and providing financial support to many hospitals and clinics. Evangelical doctors also worked in these hospitals, often as volunteers or sometimes for nominal wages. The goal was to meet a growing need for Egyptian society to obtain this distinguished type of medical care. It was and still is a successful way to demonstrate Christian love and behavior, which attracts many people to the Christian faith, which they see in a practical way. In addition to the large hospitals owned by some evangelical sects, there are dozens of small medical units called dispensaries that spread throughout Egypt’s cities and villages. These dispensaries are run by local churches.[14]
3- Social service
There are many fields in which the Evangelical Church, with its various sects, served Egyptian society. In addition to education and medical service, the church’s service included many segments and phenomena of society, such as serving women, the marginalized, addicts, people with special needs, orphans, and others. Social service also included the areas of village development, family planning, sustainable development, confronting negative social phenomena, and enhancing the values of community participation.
All of these things happened gradually throughout the history of evangelical churches. In the early beginnings, the church served the Egyptian family by serving women in their homes. The church has allocated some missionary and national maids to visit homes and provide advice and guidance to women in the areas of raising children, environmental work, sewing, and health awareness, in addition to sharing the Gospel. At the same time, evangelicals played a prominent role in confronting some negative social phenomena. At the end of the nineteenth century, evangelicals fought the phenomenon of slavery. On one occasion, the church prevented one of its members from obtaining the position of agent of the Evangelical community until he freed the slaves who were in his possession, and he did so. The church also worked with the Egyptian government on popular awareness and active participation to nullify this phenomenon until it succeeded in doing so. In the early twentieth century, the Church confronted the phenomenon of smoking, drinking alcohol, and drug use and established some civil society organizations for awareness and guidance.[15]
In the field of orphan care, Evangelical churches have contributed to establishing a number of homes to accommodate children who have lost their parents in many cities such as Cairo, Assiut, Alexandria, and others. Perhaps the Lillian Thrasher shelter in the city of Assiut is the best witness to the historical role that Lillian Thrasher played in this field, and the Apostolic Church has received this service from her until today, which represents a shining testimony about God’s work in the Egyptian country.
The social service carried out by evangelical churches also includes serving some groups that suffer from need, such as those with special needs in terms of physical, mental, or hearing, as there are some evangelical institutions that provide a distinguished service that attempts to support individuals and families facing such circumstances. This is not limited to the large evangelical denominations, but also extends to some local churches that provide health, social and spiritual places and services for these groups most in need.[16]
The service of the Coptic Evangelical Organization for Social Services is a model of evangelical social institutions that link the church and society. Since its inception in the 1950s, and under the distinguished leadership of Pastor Samuel Habib, this body has served the needs of the community, especially the rural community. There are many fields that the Evangelical Organization has established and is carrying out, including literacy projects, health awareness, sustainable rural development, agricultural fields, small loans, and women’s service, in addition to training in conflict resolution and peacemaking skills, and other fields. The Evangelical Organization has a presence in the Egyptian street and the media because of its moderate discourse that attracts the elite and the credibility of its testimony and service it has built over the years.[17]
There has been development over the years in the church’s involvement with society. The tone that was prevalent before, which called for the church to be isolated from society and for its role to be limited to serving its members, has diminished. But there is now greater awareness of the church’s prophetic role in presenting truth, goodness, and beauty to society by serving real needs and presenting the Christian message in a practical form.
Third: Political influence
Although the church does not work in politics, it is interested in it. The church lives in its society and is affected by the political events that surround it, so it interacts and shows its positions that are reconciled with its principles. The role of the church is not limited to merely monitoring, supporting or denouncing, but it has the role of shepherd to implement the principles of the Kingdom of God of right, righteousness, justice, equality and dignity for every human being. The Egyptian Evangelical Church, with its various sects, has tried to play a political role, albeit limited, but influential. In the early historical stages of its presence in Egypt, the church interacted with political developments in Egypt. On the one hand, the Church tried to establish balanced relations with the ruling establishment in Egypt during the second half of the nineteenth century. But when its service collided with the laws of the country that stood in the way of individuals adopting the religion they wanted, the church, as well as the mission working with the church, stood before the ruler until it extracted its right to international assistance, which is what history tells us about that period.[18]
When the British occupation came to Egypt in…1882, some thought that the colonizer would be a supporter of Christians and Christian service. But the hopes of many were disappointed when they found that the colonizer did not care about religious affairs, but rather focused most of his attention on the political aspect. On the contrary, the colonizers favored the Muslim majority of the Egyptian people at the expense of the Christians, which made Christian service more difficult under English rule than during the late Ottoman rule, which had taken control of Egypt before that. What supports this opinion is the negative image with which the British viewed the Egyptian Copts and accused them of ignorance, deception, and lying. All of this evidence categorically denies the view that evangelical missionaries and therefore evangelical churches are the likes of colonialism. The facts of history prove that the Evangelical Church is a national church that interacted with the teachings of the Evangelical Reformation and preserved its roots in the Egyptian national soil, thus participating in the life of the nation.[19]
When the masses of the Egyptian people rose in the face of British colonialism in1919, evangelicals played a prominent role in stimulating the national spirit and positive participation in standing up to colonialism. There are many figures of Evangelical origins who belong to major Evangelical families, especially in Upper Egypt, who participated positively in the events of the revolution. Among these figures stands out the character of Makram Ebeid, who studied at Assiut American College, affiliated with the American Mission in Egypt. He played a prominent role in Egyptian political life, as he was a member of the House of Representatives, a minister, party leader, and a key player in Egyptian political life. There is also Alexander Abskhairon, who played a prominent national role and was a member of the Egyptian Parliament. And also George Khayat.[20]
The most prominent figure who played an important role in the political and social movement in Egypt is Aster Fahmy Wissa, who stood against British colonialism. Esther is a descendant of the largest evangelical families in Upper Egypt, the Enoch Fanous family. Aster studied at the American Girls School in Assiut and graduated in 1 year1910. Aster Wissa headed many party associations and committees in the Wafd Party and women’s associations. She was known for advocating women’s rights and calling for resistance to colonialism. Esther Wissa wrote dozens of letters to Lord Allenby, the British High Commissioner in Egypt, defending her country’s right to freedom and independence. When things calmed down politically, Aster Wissa turned to social work, where she founded a number of social service associations, such as the Work Association for Egypt and the Egyptian Women’s Union.[21]
When the Egyptian state began writing a new constitution for the country in1923, the Evangelical Church contributed in more than one way. In the Constituent Assembly charged with writing the new constitution, six evangelicals participated in this drafting. In parallel, the Evangelical Church formed a committee of its members to draft articles in the constitution guaranteeing freedom of worship, belief, and human rights and submitted them to the founding committee. Those responsible for drafting the new constitution adopted many of the ideas demanded by evangelicals.[22]
The contributions of evangelicals to Egyptian political life prove that the church, through its members, is an important element in society and is not isolated from its issues. This also appeared when the Palestine problem arose, as the voice of the Evangelical Church rose loudly, calling for freedom and independence for the people of Palestine. The Evangelical Church, with all its sects, also provided material and in-kind aid to relieve the Palestinian people, and Evangelical writers wrote denouncing Zionist colonialism and explaining the meaning of Israel in the Bible from an Egyptian Evangelical point of view.[23]
The Evangelical Church supported its country during times of war1956, when the defeat occurred in 1967, and the days of victory in October 1973. When the Egyptian government took the initiative to establish peace with Israel and sign a treaty to this effect, the Evangelical Church supported this step and explained it in ecumenical and international forums.[24]
In our present days, the Evangelical Church has interacted positively with national issues. The presidency of the Evangelical community in Egypt issued many statements in support of the revolution of the people of EgyptJanuary 25, 2011. These statements came to confirm the right of the Egyptian people to peacefully protest against the existing bad conditions. When the features of the revolution began to become clear, the Evangelical Church called for the civility of the state and the rights of humans and minorities to express and believe. The Evangelical Church at the national and local levels holds many lectures and awareness seminars to motivate evangelicals to participate actively politically. Despite the forced absence of the Evangelical Church in the last fifty years from carrying out any noticeable political activity, the Church’s participation in the activities of the Egyptian Revolution through individuals and local churches is an important indicator of the beginning of a real renaissance towards the Church restoring its effective prophetic role, and not just keeping up with and supporting what is happening around it. Of the events, and the flattery of the ruler and the denial of the role for which the Church existed in the world.[25]
Conclusion
In conclusion, it can be said that the Evangelical Church, with its various sects, has and continues to play a vital role in the life of its country. Although political, social, and economic circumstances have kept the church away from carrying out its prophetic role, the importance of this role has not diminished over the years. When the church saw an opportunity to play its role, it did so effectively. Perhaps this panoramic study has shed some light on some of what the Egyptian Evangelical Church has done and in its history, while recognizing that this role requires more and more study, recording, analysis, and drawing lessons that will help future generations to actively engage in the life of the nation and provide a model that carries the values of the Kingdom of God and spreads it. Principles of the Gospel of Christ for Egyptian, Arab and Middle Eastern society.
the reviewer
First: Arabic references:
Thomas, Imad. Cairo Dialogues and Issues: Author,2008.
Good, peer. Then God said, “Let there be light.” Articles in Sunday School Magazine, NoNovember 9-10 and December 1951.
Salama, Adeeb Naguib. History of the Evangelical Church in Egypt and Sudan. Cairo: House of Culture,1982.
________. Evangelicals and National Action.Cairo: House of Culture,1993.
Abdel Fattah, Nabil. Editor, Report on the Religious Situation in Egypt. Cairo: Al-Ahram Center for Political and Strategic Studies.1995.
Lamei, Ikram. The other side of the church. Cairo: House of Culture,1997.
Al-Huda Magazine, issue1134, March-April 2011.
Wissa, Hanna Fahmy. Assiut, the story of an Egyptian family. Without a publishing house, without a country of publication,1996.
Second: English references:
Elder, Earl E. Vindicating a Vision: The Story of the American Mission in Egypt 1854 -1954, Philadelphia: The United Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, 1958.
Hewitt, Gordon the Problem of Success: A History of the Church Missionary Society 1910-1942, Vol. I, London: SCM Press Ltd, 1971.
Lansing, Julian Religious Toleration in Egypt: Official Correspondence Relating to the Indemnity Obtained for the Maltreatment of Faris El-Hakim, An Agent of the American Missionaries in Egypt, London: Privately printed, 1862.
Richter, Julius. A History of the Protestant Missions in the Near East, Edinburgh: Oliphant, Anderson and Ferrier, 1910.
Stock, Eugene. ed. The History of the Church Missionary Society: Its Environment, Its Men and Its Work, vol. 1. London: Church Missionary Society, 1899.
UPCNA, Board of Foreign Missions, The 50th Annual Report of the American United Presbyterian Mission in Egypt for the Year 1904, Philadelphia: Board of Foreign Missions, 1904.
Virtue, David W. A Vision of Hope: The Story of Samuel Habib, One of the Arab World’s Greatest Contemporary Leaders and his Plan for Peace in the Strife-torn Middle East where the Cross and the Crescent Meet and where the Bible, Koran and Torah vie Center Stage, Oxford: Regnum Books International, 1996.
Wahba, Tharwat. The Practice of Mission in Egypt: A Historical Study of the Integration between the American Mission and The Evangelical Church of Egypt, 1854-1970, London: Lanham Monograph, 2016.
Watson, Andrew. The American Mission in Egypt 1854 to 1896, 2nd ed. Pittsburgh: United Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1904.
Whately, M.L. Among the Huts in Egypt: Scenes from Real Life. London: Seeley, Jackson, & Halliday. 1871.
[1]Julius Richter, A History of the Protestant Missions in the Near East (Edinburgh: Oliphant, Anderson and Ferrier, 1910), 92.
[2]Andrew Watson, The American Mission in Egypt 1854 to 1896, 2nd ed. (Pittsburgh: United Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1904), 23.
[3]Eugene Stock, ed. The History of the Church Missionary Society: Its Environment, Its Men and Its Work, vol. 1. (London: Church Missionary Society, 1899), 351 & Gordon Hewitt, The Problem of Success: A History of the Church Missionary Society 1910-1942, vol. 1 (London: SCM Press Ltd, 1971), 306.
[4]M. L. Whately, Among the Huts in Egypt: Scenes from Real Life (London: Seeley, Jackson, & Halliday. 1871), 147-9.
[5]Earl E. Elder, Vindicating a Vision: The Story of the American Mission in Egypt 1854-1954 (Philadelphia: The United Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, 1958), 1.
[6]Nabil Abdel Fattah, editor, Report on the Religious Situation in Egypt (Cairo: Al-Ahram Center for Political and Strategic Studies,1995), 122-123.
[7]A good counterpart, Then God said, Let there be light, articles in the Sunday School Magazine, noNovember 9-10 and December 1951.
[8]Elder, Vindicating, 35.
[9]Abdel Fattah, Report on the Religious Situation in Egypt,90-91.
[10]Imad Thomas, Dialogues and Issues (Cairo: Author,2008), 128-129.
[11]Richter, A History, 350.
[12]UPCNA, Board of Foreign Missions, The 50th Annual Report of the American United Presbyterian Mission in Egypt for the Year 1904, (Philadelphia: Board of Foreign Missions, 1904), 93.
[13]Adeeb Najib Salama, The History of the Evangelical Church in Egypt and Sudan (Cairo: House of Culture,1982), 201.
[14]Tharwat Wahba, The Practice of Mission in Egypt: A Historical Study of the Integration between the American Mission And The Evangelical Church of Egypt, 1854-1970, (London: Lnagham Mongraph, 2016), 21& 81.
[15]Adeeb Naguib Salama. Evangelicals and National Work (Cairo: House of Culture,1993), 159-161. Abdel Fattah, Religious Status Report, 249.
[16]Salama, Evangelicals and National Action,123.
[17]For more about the Coptic Organization and the role of Pastor Samuel Habib, see:
Virtue, David W. A Vision of Hope: The Story of Samuel Habib, one of the Arab World’s Greatest Contemporary Leaders and his Plan for Peace in the Strife-torn Middle East where the Cross and the Crescent Meet and where the Bible, Koran and Torah vie Center Stage (Oxford: Regnum Books International, 1996).
[18] Gulian Lansing, Religious Toleration in Egypt: Official Correspondence Relating to the Indemnity Obtained for the Maltreatment of Faris El- Hakim, An Agent of the American Missionaries in Egypt (London: Privately printed, 1862), 1-16.
[19]Ikram Lamei, The Other Side of the Church (Cairo: House of Culture,1997), 214-215.
[20]safety. Evangelicals and National Action,180-195.
[21]About Esther Wissa and her biography and works, see: Hanna Fahmy Wissa, Assiut, The Story of an Egyptian Family, (without publishing house, without country of publication,1996), 190-374.
[22]The previous reference,257-259.
[23]The previous reference,221-324.
[24]The previous reference,393-406.
[25]Al-Huda Magazine, issue1134, March-April 2011.
